Unit 4: New rulers new hopes

Overview of the unit

1. Tyrants or protectors?
   
   How were empires in the past governed? In this section, we learn about the rulers who governed al-Andalus from the eighth to the tenth centuries. These rulers ranged from conquerors and tyrants to those who were great city-builders and patrons of learning.
   
2. Rising to greatness
   
   The individuals who worked under the caliphs occupied positions of great power and influence. The text leads us to examine the ways in which individuals came to occupy high positions. We become aware of the role that a person's background played when people were selected for these positions. We also examine how people with special talents and skills were viewed by the rulers in these times.
   
3. The caliph's adviser
   
   To help us get a better understanding of the above topic, we study the example of a Jewish court official who rose through the ranks in Muslim al-Andalus because of his wide range of talents. Hasday ibn Shaprut was recognised by the caliph for his skills as a royal adviser, doctor and scholar. We learn how Hasday helped the caliph to set up closer links with a Christian monarch in the north.
   
4. The case of the missing horses
   
   An important part of governing an empire in the past was ensuring that there was law and order in the land. The text gives us insight into how law and order were maintained in Cordova in the tenth century. We are presented with an example of a dispute between two groups of people in the city and how it was settled by the judges and officials.
   
   1. 
      
      Tyrants or protectors
      
   The current ruler of al-Andalus is Abd al-Rahman III. He has ruled for almost fifty years, the longest a Muslim ruler has ruled in al-Andalus. Now worrying rumours are arising among the Cordovans. Who among the many sons of Abd al-Rahman will be chosen as the new ruler? Will that ruler turn out to be a tyrant or a protector?
   
   It is a worrying time for the people of Cordova. Those who are old know all too well how the fate of ordinary people depends in these times on the type of ruler who inherits the throne. Some of them still remember the reigns of the earlier amirs.
   
   
   Abd al-Rahman I
   
   
   
   The Cordovans remember the rule of Abd al-Rahman I, the Umayyad prince who came to al-Andalus from Damascus. He was a conqueror who seized power from a weak amir and forced his own rule on the people. He became the amir of al-.Andalus and governed for thirty years. By the end of his rule, he had managed to unite the different groups in his empire, and to protect its borders from neighbouring kingdoms.
   
   
   Hisham
   
   
   
   Abd al-Rahman I chose neither his oldest son nor his youngest one to become the next ruler. Instead, he selected the middle prince whose name was Hisham, the gentlest among his children. Hisham turned out to be a very pious amir. People say that he dressed in a simple white robe, helped the poor by taking food to their homes, and prayed with the ordinary people.
   
   Some Cordovans doubt whether an amir would do these kinds of things, but everyone seems to agree that Hisham was a holy man.
   
   
   Al-Hakam
   
   
   
   Just before Hisham died, he too passed over his eldest son to choose one of his younger princes who was only twenty-six years old. Al-Hakam, as the new amir was called, was quite the opposite of his father. If Hisham spent most of his time in the mosque, al-Hakam was given over to drinking and hunting. Hisham was a devout person while a1-Hakam was unpredictable and harsh.
   
   It was not long before some of religious leaders in Cordova started complaining about the amir's ways. Al-Hakam began to feel threatened by the growing numbers of his opponents. He ordered a large number of rebels to be murdered in a tower in Toledo. He also got his soldiers to burn down an entire area on the south bank of the Guadalquivir where many of his opponents lived.
   
   These events still remain in the memories of the Cordovans. Some people call al-Hakam a tyrant, while others say that he was a strong ruler who wiped out all reb11ion in. al-Andalus in his time.
   
   
   Abd al-Rahman II
   
   
   
   Al-Hakam was followed by Abd-al-Rahrnan II, who was yet again different from all the previous amirs. Abd al-Rahman II built a new palace in Cordova. He asked workers to build a conduit to bring water from the mountains to the city. Hundreds of fountains with marble basins were built so that the city became filled with the sound of sprinkling water.
   
   The amir also built new mints in al-Andalus to make more co ins, a sign of the increasing wealth of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman was a man of culture, and invited poets, musicians and other artists to entertain him in his palace.
   
   
   Abd al-Rahman Ill
   
   
   
   Now it is the time of Ad al-Rahman III who has gone further than the other rulers. He is no longer an amir, but he has become a caliph. Amirs are of lower rank than caliphs. The previous amirs were governors who were forced to accept the rule of the Damascus or Baghdad.
   
   Abd-al Rahman III has become the first caliph of al-Anda1us. The new caliph's reign has been more peaceful and prosperous than the periods in which the previous amirs ruled.
   
   Al-Andalus, like other regions in these times, has experienced many difficulties with its rulers. Let's find out how Abd al-Rahman III is ruling his empire. What kinds of people are helping him govern his land? What relations has he set up with neighbouring kingdoms? And what kind of law and order has he brought about in the towns and cities?
   
   KEY QUESTION
   
   What kinds of rulers hold power in at Andalus from the eighth to the tenth centuries?
   
   TIMELI NE
   

• 8th century CE: Abd al-Rahman I
  
• 8th century CE: Hisham
  
• 9th century CE: Al-Hakam
  
• 9th century CE: Abd aI-Rah man II
  
• 10th century CE: Abd aI-Rah man Ill
  

ACTIVITY

Imagine that you visit Cordova In the periods when it is being ruled by the. five rulers described here. Write an account of how the life of Cordovans might be affected by the reign of each ruler.

REVIEW POINT

Leadership was an important factor for Muslims in the past. Progress or decline Ii: these. times often depended on the types of rulers who held, power over the people.

MAKIN CONNECTIONS

Compare two rulers from different empires who lived in the past. For example, you could compare the rule of Abd al-Rahman Ill with that of Charlemagne, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire In the ninth century. What similarities and differences do you notice?

DISCUSSING ISSUES

What are some major challenges facing modern rulers in different parts of the world today'? Are the challenges faced by Muslim leaders similar to or different from those faced by other leaders?

THINKING FURTHER

What kinds of qualities are required by a modern leader to lead a country? To what extent do modern leaders reflect these qualities?

4.2    Rising to greatness

The Middle Ages are a period of kingdoms and empires run by kings, emperors, caliphs or amirs. The leaders are not elected by the people, as they ace in many modern countries. They become leaders by birth, or they are appointed by some one powerful, or they seize power for themselves if they are strong enough.

Rulers in the middle Ages can become tyrants, if they so wish. In real life, they may find it difficult to rule people in whatever manner they choose. Most new rulers, if they are wise, respect the law that exists in their land. They might change some laws and bring in new ones, but on the whole, they allow people to get on with their lives. Change for its own sake is not considered good in these times.

Rulers also need a great deal of help to manage their kingdoms or empires. They often turn to ministers, advisers and governors to run their affairs for them.

Selecting people for positions

The caliph depends on many important people to help him rule al-Andalus. Some of these peop1e include viziers (ministers), qadis (judge) and army commanders. How are these people chosen for these important positions?

Inhering a high position

In the Middle Ages, people usually gain high positions as a result of being born in a particular family. If a person's father and grandfather have been chief qadis, then there is a very high chance for that person to become a chief qadi if he has the required knowledge and ability. People in medieval times believe that occupations have to be passed on from father to son.

Connections with the powerful

People in power often choose those who are related to them, or are well known to them, or come from wealthy and powerful families. In this way, the rulers are able to keep the power within their own families and ruling groups.

However, sometimes a close relative of a caliph might turn ambitious and seek to become the ruler himself. In al-Andalus, the caliph is very suspicious of his own  brothers, uncles and even his sons.

People with special talents

Those who are selecte4 for a high position need special knowledge and skills to do their work; Rulers and court officials may pick out individuals
because of their talents and give them special work to do.

Talented people stand out because of special gifts they have. They may show great ability to become good soldiers, scholars, poets or architects. They may be rich or poor, and come from all walks of life. Some of them may even be slaves.

In al-Andalus, the caliph has appointed people because of their birth, connections and skills. The caliph has also chosen some officials from less recognised groups because of their outstanding talents.

Some of these officials and advisers are Jews and Christians who work in important positions in Cordova and the other main towns of al-Andalus. They have been selected to work in high positions because of their wide knowledge and their special skills.

In the next section, we learn about a close adviser of the caliph who is a gifted scholar, a doctor and a good court official.

KEY QUESTION

How did individuals rise to high positions in al-Andatus?

WORD TO LOOK UP

• Qadi
  
• Vizier
  

REVIEW POINT

Individuals rose to high positions in the middle Ages because of their birth, connections and skills. In some cases, individuals from less recognised groups were selected because of their special talents.

DISCUSSING ISSUES

To what extent are people selected for particular positions today because of their special skills? Discuss this question in relation to your country.

THINKING FURTHER

Are talented people gifted by birth, or have they worked hard to become talented? Discuss this question by referring to examples of individuals' special talents today.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Think of some people in history, from different civilisations in the past, who are considered to be great. What are the reasons they are accepted as great figures?

4.3    The caliph's adviser

Whoever becomes the ruler of al-Andalus faces a big challenge — to protect the borders of al-Andalus from invasions. It has not been easy to guard these borders, for the Christian kingdoms in the north are not always on friendly terms with al-Andalus. There have been frequent battles with these kingdoms. In a few cases, the Muslim and Christian rulers have tried to set up good relations with one mother.

The Ambassador from Navarre

Abd al-Rahman III has recently received an unexpected request from one of the Christian kingdoms. An ambassador has arrived from the queen of Navarre, seeking help from the caliph. She wants the caliph to help her defeat a neighbouring kingdom called Leon. The kingdom was being ruled by her grandson, Sancho, but he has lost his throne. The queen wants to see her grandson regain his kingdom.

The ambassador from Navarre has also brought another request from the queen. She wishes the caliph to send him a good doctor who can cure her grandson from an illness he is suffering.

The caliph is happy to receive these requests from the queen. It is a good opportunity for him to make peace with the kingdom of Navarre and to capture Leon for the queen's grandson. The caliph knows that he needs to send someone very capable to the queen. It will have to be somebody with special skills, a person who can speak Latin, deal cleverly with a ruler, and also be able to treat illnesses. Fortunately, the caliph has just the right person in his court. It is Hasday ibn Shaprut, his close adviser.

Hasday ibn Shaprut

Hasday is a man of many talents who is highly respected by the caliph.
Hasday belongs to a good Jewish family of Cordova. He has wide knowledge of geography, politics, poetry and medicine. He speaks Hebrew, Arabic and Latin, and knows Romance, a language that is an early form of Spanish. He has also discovered in the ancient books a cure for comfort poisons. Hasday is glad to act as an envoy for the caliph and soon sets off to Navarre with the ambassador.

The queen and her grandson

When Hasday reaches Navarre, he conveys the caliph's message to the queen. He lets her know that] caliph is willing to help her regain her grandson's kingdom of Leon.

Hasday finds that the queen is not entirely certain of the caliph's promise. He knows he will have to do much more to win her over to the caliph's side. If he could persuade the queen to visit Cordova, she might get to know the caliph much better. But it is rare in days for monarchs to visit foreign lands. For a Christian monarch to visit a Muslim ruler is even more rare.

The answer comes to Hasday when he looks into Sancho's illness. He tells the queen that he can cure her grandson's illness, but only in Cardova.The drugs, instruments, advisers and texts that he needs for illness are all in Cordovan. The queen knows that the best doctors are to be found in the south of the peninsula. After further persuasion by Hasday, the queen at last agrees to travel with her grandson to the capital of al-Andalus.

A royal procession

A long royal procession sets off from Navarre, working itself south towards the caliph's capital. Accompanying the queen and her grandson are a large group of priests and nobles, soldiers and servants who follow their royal masters. Along the route, villagers came out to watch this strange sight. Never in their lives have they seen a royal procession pass by their villages.

A warm welcome

After many weeks of travel, the queen of Navarre finally reaches Cordova. The caliph's troops are ready to receive her and accompany the royal procession all the way to the palace. Huge crowds of Cordovans line the streets to catch a glimpse of the queen.

The queen is taken aback by the splendour of Cordova, with its gardens and fountains, its majestic mosques and splendid buildings, but most of all, by its people who seem to be of every imaginable race and colour.

The queen is overcome by the caliph's hospitality and generosity. Most of the suspicions that she has about the caliph slowly disappear during her stay in Cordova. Most important of all, Hasday cures her grandson of his illness as he promised.

So the months later, the caliph helps the queen to regain the kingdom of Leon for her grandson. Unfortunately, not many stories in the middle Ages have a happy ending. Not many years later, the rulers of Leon and al-Andalus are once again at war with each other.

KEY QUESTION

How were people with special talents treated by the caliphs in Muslim lands?

WORDSTOLOOKUP

        • Hebrew • Romance 

• Monarch

TIMELINE

• 10^th century CE: Hasday ibn Shaprut
  

ACTIVITY

Imagine Hasday trying to persuade the queen of Navarre to visit Cordova. What objections would the queen have raised? How would Hasday have I tried to persuade her? Write a dialogue based on the conversation the two of them might have had.

REVIEW POINT

In some periods Muslim rulers appoint Christian and Jewish advisers based on their special skills and talent.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Identify individuals in the past who became great because of the special ta1ents they had Find out more about these individuals and how they became recognised for their skills

DISCUSSING ISSUES

Many people in modern societies feel they are unfairly treated because of the religion they practise, the culture they belong to, the language they speak, the colour of their skin, or because of being female. What are some of the reasons why discrimination takes place today? What are some ways in which a fairer society can be created?

THINKING FURTHER

Find out about societies In the twentieth century which discriminated against people on the basis of their race, religion or culture. What impact did such policies have on people who lived in these places? What was the final outcome for these societies?

4.4    The case of the missing horses

Defending the borders of al-Andalus is an important challenge for the caliph. A bigger challenge is keeping law and order inside the land. Ensuring peace among the different groups who live in al-Andalus has never been easy for the rulers. A visit to one of the markets of Cordova should be interesting. It may help us to learn how law and order is kept on the streets of the capital.

The market we are visiting is a large one and we will have to be careful we do not loose our way. We are in a part of the market where livestock is sold. Here, we find farmers and traders buying and selling poultry, sheep, cattle and horses. Suddenly we notice a large crowd that has gathered around an empty stable. We hurry over to the stable to find out what is happening.

The olive merchants and the blacksmiths

A group of olive merchants are disputing with some blacksmiths over five horses that have disappeared from the stable during the night. The horses belonged to the olive merchants who had left them with the blacksmiths that they could be fitted with new horseshoes. No one knows where the horses are.

The olive merchants are demanding money from the blacksmiths, claiming that the horses were under the care of the blacksmiths. The blacksmiths refusing to pay any money for the lost horses, arguing that the olive merchants should have left their stable-boy to look after the horses overnight. This is what all their other customers did.

The muhtasib

Someone soon calls the muhtasib, a special officer who is in charge of the markets.

• It is his duty to examine the weighing scales to make sure that traders do not cheat their customers.
  
• He checks the prices of loaves of bread and other food items to make sure they are not overpriced.
  
• He deals with complaints brought to him by customers and stall-keepers.
  

The muhtasib is just the right person to solve this dispute. He listens to both the olive merchants and the blacksmiths. The crowd is taking sides and things are beginning to get, out of control. The muhtasib calls for the police who are in charge of disturbances in the city. They arrive quickly and soon disperse the crowd.

The muhtasib feels this is a case for the qadi, the judge who sorts disputes of this kind. He takes down the names of people of both groups and asks them to report to the qadi.

The qadi

The qadi is a man who has settled many cases of this kind before. He listens to both the olive merchants and the blacksmiths. The olive merchants tell their side of the story while the blacksmiths mike a good case for themselves. Each side is convinced that it is in the right. Since there are no witnesses, it is difficult to solve this disagreement.

The qadi is in a difficult position. Who should have been responsible for looking after the horses at night? He tries hard to find the answer; each party insists that the other is to blame. The qadi has no choice but to seek the advice of the chief qadi.

The importance of law and order

Keeping law and order in Cordova does not always work as in the above story. There are cases where unjust decisions are made by the muhtasib, the qadi, the vizier or the army commander. At these times, one group or another feels betrayed.

In the past. as is also true of modern times, people realise the importance of law and order. How the laws are made and followed is not always an easy matter.

The Chief qazi

The chief qazi is a wise man who always takes into account points which some judges may consider unimportant. He finds out that the olive merchants and the blacksmiths belong to two opposing communities who have been quarreling for many months now. If one side feels they have been treated unfairly, it will not take long for the dispute to grow.

Clearly, it would be very silly to upset the peace between these two groups for the sake of five horses. The chief qazi advises the junior qadi to compensate the olive merchants for their lost horses and hopes that it will solve the problem. However, as a precaution the chief qadi alerts a vizir of what has happened.

The vizier

The vizier is one of several ministers of the caliph. It is his duty to make sure that there is peace between all the different groups who live in Cordova and elsewhere in al-Andalus. The vizier does not like the story he hears from the chief qadi. He fears the worst for these two groups. It is quite likely that the dispute will spread. Should he bother the caliph about this matter?

After careful thought, the vizier decides that he will wait for a few days to see if the matter grows worse. Like the chief qadi, he is a cautious man. He therefore speaks to the army commander to make sure that matters do not get out of hand. He hopes that the whole matter will die away. The peace of al-Andalus depends on peace between the different groups who live in this land.

KEY QUESTION

How was law and order kept in Cordova?

WORDS TO LOOK UP 

•.Muhtasib

Activity

Imagine you are the qadi who is tying to settle the dispute between the blacksmiths and the olive merchants. Write a list of questions that you would ask each group. How would you settle the issue?

REVIEW POINT

In Muslim empire as in other lands in the Middle Ages law and order were essential for people to carry out. their everyday activities.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Find out how criminals were treated by different civilisations in the middle Ages! How do modern societies treat criminals? What are some of the reasons for these changes?

DICUSSING ISSUES

Some people claim that there is greater crime and injustice today than
there was in the past. They feel that modern systems of law are not effective. Discuss this claim in relation to your country.

THINKING FURTHER

Examine some of the public laws that you have to follow in your daily life. How were these laws made in. your country? How are laws made in other countries?

Review questions 

4.1   Tyrants or protectors?

• Who were some of the rulers of Cordova, and in what ways were they different from one another?
  
• What did Abd al-Rahman I manage to achieve during his rule?
  
• Why was Hisham considered a pious man while al-Hakam was viewed as a
  tyrant?
  
• What were some of the achievements of Abd al-Rahma.n III? 
  4.2   Rising to greatness
  

• How were people selected for high positions in the Middle Ages?
  
• Why did people in the past prefer to pass occupations from father to son?
  
• What kinds of difficulties might people with special talents from less recognised groups have faced in being selected for high positions?
  
• To what extent are people today selected for positions on the basis of their skills?
  

1. The caliph's adviser
   

• Who was Hasday ibn Shaprut and why was he selected by the caliph to work for him?
  
  
• How did Hasday help in creating closer links between the Christian queen and the Muslim caliph?
  
• In what other ways might advisers such as Hasday been of value to caliphs?
  

1. Case of the missing horses
   

• What led to the dispute between the olive merchants and the blacksmiths? kind of officials intervened in the dispute?
  
• Why was it difficult to find out, who was responsible for the missing horses?
  
• How was the dispute finally resolved? Was this a fair way of solving the disagreement?
  
• In what ways is keeping law and order today different from medieval times?
  
  
  
  
  

 

Unit 3: Centres of civilisation

Overview of the unit

1.    The jewel of al-Andalus

In this section, we return to the city of Cordova as the capital of al-Andalus in the tenth century. We learn about the growth of the city near the River Guadalquivir. We also become acquainted with its key sites, including the city quarters, the places of worship, the bazaar, and the surrounding countryside.

2.    Cities—old and new

The text helps us to compare Cordova with other important cities that existed at this time, such as Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad and Constantinople. We are made aware of both old and new cities that acted as centres of civilisation in the past. We also find out about the links that existed between these cities.

3.    Fortresses of safety

In some periods and regions, cities became places of safety where people could trade, produce craftwork and study different fields of knowledge. In this section, we examine how cities made it possible for their inhabitants to follow ways of life that were not possible elsewhere.

4.    Places of danger

People living in cities could not always expect to be safe. In the past, cities were exposed to plague, fire, invasions and other disasters. In the text, we explore some of these dangers, and what impact such misfortunes had for the lives of people who lived in these places.

3.1    The jewel of al-Andalus

The years roll by as we stand on the ancient bridge of Cordova. One amir after another tries to defend the northern borders of al-Andalus from the neighbouring Christian kingdoms. There are also many revolts by Arab, Berber and Christian groups in al-Andalus.

The capital of al-Andalus

And what of Cordova itself? Let us walk from the bridge to the town once again to find out for ourselves. What a surprise awaits us! Cordova has changed from a small town to a thriving capital of al-Andalus.

The town has grown considerably in size, attracting people from other towns and villages who have made the city their new home. More Arabs and Berbers have emigrated from the Maghrib to Cordon. New houses and streets have appeared outside the walls of the city, making Cordon grow in all directions.

Some people say that the city now has 200,000 inhabitants. Others disagree and put the number at 500,000. Some even say a million! We can never know for sure, for no. one has counted all the people who live in Cordova in the tenth century.

City quarters

The city is divided into different areas or quarters, each bounded by wall which separates it from neighbouring areas. Each quarter has bazaars, storehouses and inns, public baths and workshops. Houses are built very close to one another along narrow, winding streets. Bay windows with wooden lattice screens jut out from the house, almost touching the ones on the opposite buildings.

At night, the gates of the walls are shut to prevent strangers from entering the quarters. The streets are well paved and lit by lamps fixed to the doors and corners of the houses. At sunrise, streets come to life once again, with water carriers bringing water to the houses, and peasants arriving with fresh fruit and vegetables from their fields,

Places of worship

A vast network of narrow lanes and alleys criss-cross the quarters and somehow find their way to the main centres of the city. Here we find the caliph's palace and the main bazaar. We also find a large mosque that stands on the site of the mosque- cathedral we visited earlier. Some Cordovans boast that it is the biggest mosque in all the Muslim lands.

There are other places of worship in Cordova, such as Christian churches and jewish synagogues. Gardens, public baths and fountains are to be found everywhere in the city.

Then comes the tenth century, a time of peace and progress. Al-Andalus is ruled by Abd al-Rahman III, a descendant of the Umayyad prince. He has proclaimed himself a caliph, since he no longer fears the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.

The bazaar

The bazaar is another major centre of gathering in the city. Merchants sell goods such as beautiful silks and other fabrics, bottles of perfumes, and various types of spices. he markets are filled with interesting sights and sounds. The clash and clatter of the coppersmith's workshop leads suddenly to the muffled quiet of the cloth merchant's area.

The river

Cardova has become an attractive place for traders. The river traffic has built up, with boats and ships heavy with goods and merchandise sailing up and down the river. The river is deep enough or cargo ships to sail all the way to the city, linking Cordova to the Mediterranean Sea and the rest of the Mediterranean lands.

The farms

Surrounding Cordova are large areas of land with estates, farms and villages. Most of this land is owned .by wealthy landowners who live in villas near the city. Wheat, barley, olives and grapes are the main crops grown on these farms. New crops have also been introduced by Arab and Berber fanners, such as rice, sugar-cane, cotton and oranges. A wide range of crops are sold in the markets of Cordova.

The tenth century is an exciting time to live in Cordova. Cordova has grown from a small market town to one of the largest cities in European and Muslim lands. It has become the shining jewel of al-Andalus.

City walls

The centre of Cordova is bounded by a wall whose sides have different lengths. One of the smaller sides of the wall runs along the river. Near the ancient Roman Bridge, we find a large waterwheel that draws water from the river for use in the caliph's palace.

KEY QUESTION

What kind of city was Cordova the tenth century?

WORDS TO LOOK UP

• Bazaar
• Synagogue

TIMEL1NE

• 8th century CE: Cordova becomes capital of al-Andalus
• 912-961 CE: The reign of Abd aI-Rahman Ill

ACTIVITY

Draw a street, map of Cordova in the tenth century, showing the main sites. Compare this map with that on page 112. What similarities and differences do you notice?

REVIEW POINT

Cordova was the capital of al-Andalus and a centre of civilisanon in
Mediterranean region in the tenth century.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

In the tenth century Cairo and Cordova were two capitals of Muslim empires that were to be found in the Maghrib. Make a table that lists the cities of Cordova and Cairo in the tenth century.

DISCUSSING ISSUES

City planners in Muslim countries are faced with an important question how to allow for new construction while preserving a city's history? Discuss some of the ways in which this question can be addressed.

THINKING FURTHER

Imagine your town or city as it might be a hundred years in the future. In what ways do you think the streets and buildings will have changed? What changes would you like to see hap pen?

3.2    Cities old and new

Cordova in the tenth century is a famous city in the Mediterranean world, known for its grand palaces, mosques and markets. There are other cities in this region, both old and new, which are also great centres of civilisation.

Rome

Rome is an ancient city in the Italian peninsula that was once the capital of the ancient Roman empire. At one time, this empire was the largest in the world, spreading over many parts of the continents we now call Europe, Asia and Africa. Rome in the tenth century is now the centre of a large region in Europe known as the Holy Roman Empire.

This region is made up of several kingdoms which are led by Christian rulers. These rulers accept the Pope as the head of the Christian church. The Pope lives in Rome and appoints archbishops for various areas.

Cairo

Cairo is one of the youngest cities in the tenth century. It has been recently built by the fourth Fatimid caliph Imam al-Muizz. It is a palace-city in which stands the famous mosque of al-Azhar.

Within a short period of time, Cairo has become an important capital. It contains some of the best centres of learning in Muslim lands, as well as the largest libraries with books from ancient and recent times. Scholars from lands as far as Persia, Central Asia and al-Andalus come to study in Cairo.

Damascus

Another ancient city is Damascus which became the capital of the Umayyads in the seventh century. When the Arabs captured Damascus they did not destroy the existing buildings and places of worship. Instead, they used many ideas from the works of the Greeks, Romans and I3yzantines. They combined these ideas to create new styles of buildings, such as the Umayyad mosque in Damascus.

WORDSTO LOOK UP

•Al-Aqsa • Miraj

•AI-Aqsa • Miraj

• Al-Azhar • Pope

TIMELINE

• 324 CE: Founding of Constantinople by Emperor Constantine.
• 762 CE: Founding of Baghdad by Caliph al-Mansur.
• 969 CE: Founding of Cairo by Imam al-Muizz.

REVIEW POINT

Cities in the Middle Ages were important centres. of civilization. Links between cities in Muslim and neighboring lands allowed for the exchange of goods, skills and ideas.

Constantinople

Constantinople is built at a site where modern Europe meets Asia. It is the capital of the Byzantine empire which was founded by the Roman emperor Constantine in the fifth century. The great Roman empire became divided into two parts. Rome remained the capital of the western half of the empire while the eastern half became the Byzantine empire, with Constantinople as its capital.

Since Constantinople is located midway between lands now called Europe and Asia, it has become an important stopping place for travellers making long journeys between these two continents.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem is an ancient city in Palestine which is ruled by the Abbasids. It is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians and Muslims alike. It is an important centre of pilgrimage for people of all these faiths.

The Jews pray at the site where the ancient temple of Solomon once stood. For the Christians, the place where they believe Jesus was crucified is very important. The Muslims pray at the al-Aqsa mosque where Prophet Muhammad is said to have risen to heaven, on the night, of miraj. People of all these three communities can be found living in Jerusalem today.

Baghdad

Baghdad is a new city, compared to Jerusalem and Damascus. It was built in the eighth century by the Abbasids as their new capital. Baghdad is known as the round city because of its unique circular design. It stands on the banks of the River Tigris, in a region which is green and fertile. Baghdad has grown into one of the largest cities in the tenth century, known for its magnificent palaces and mosques, its busy bazaars, and its great centres of learning.

There are other cities in Muslim and Christian lands that are also well known. Some are important for religious reasons, as centres of pilgrimage. Others are great seats of power where the caliphs or emperors have built their palaces. and from where they rule the rest of their empires. Yet others are famous as trading centres, being located at places where busy trade routes meet. Among these cities, Cordova has become a great centre of culture and learning in the tenth century.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Look at a modern map of the world. Try to find the six cities identified here. In which countries are these cities located? Try to find out more information about each of them.

DISCUSSING ISSUES

What are some of the issues that historic cities all over the world are facing today? What are some ways in which these issues can be addressed?

THINKING FURTHER

A hundred years from now, what we consider new in our towns and cities will have become old. How should we understand what we mean by new and old? Does it matter that this difference should be made ?

3.3    Fortresses of safety

We have seen Cordova grow before our very eyes. From a small market town, it has become a wealthy and powerful city. Cities have always been important centres of civilisation.
However, cities cannot exist by themselves but depend on the countryside for their survival. In the tenth century, the vast majority of the people live in the countryside, but there are a growing number of people who are beginning to live in cities like Cordova. There are both benefits and, dangers of living in large cities in the middle Ages.

Protection and security

Some cities, like Cordova, have become centres of power. This is the place where the caliph or the emperor lives, and from where he rules the rest of his empire. These cities are usually well protected. Cordova has a strong wall built around its centre and troops who guard the city. Inside the city, the rulers try to ensure that there is law and order.

People feel more safe from invaders in cities than they do in small towns and villages where there is little protection. Living in peace and security, city dwellers can concentrate on their activities, rather than struggling to survive.

Centres of trading

Centres of trading Cities like Cordova have become' rich centres of trading. Cordova has some of the largest markets in the Mediterranean world where all kinds of goods are bought and sold. Traders and merchant have been attracted to Cordova because of its big and busy markets.

Peasants from the countryside also flock to Cordova because they can easily sell their surplus or extra crops. Some of them wish to be free from their lords and to live in cities where they can lead an easier life

Points of connection

Many cities are connected to one another by road, river or sea. Cordova is an important site where many routes meet, acting as a gateway to Europe. Safe, well marked roads between cities make travel and trade easier, helping soldiers, merchants and scholars to journey quickly from place to place.

As travel between cities increases, rulers and merchant are encouraged to build more ships and find better methods of navigation.

A life of ease

For the wealthy, life in the cities offers a comfortable environment. There tire many wealthy people in Cordova who pay for the fine buildings, gardens and fountains. They are served by a large number of slaves who do all the work for them. For some of the poor as well, life in the cities may be a little easier than the back-breaking labour of tilling the soil and harvesting the crops in the fields.

Living together

In some cities like Cordova, people of different cultures and faiths live together. In some periods and places cities create many chances for people of different backgrounds to exchange ideas and learn about one another. Centres of learning may be set up where scholars can study and teach important subjects.

Connections between cities leads to a greater exchange of ideas and an increase in learning. Scholars may also find support from rulers and nobles who live in these centres.

KEY QUESTION

What kind of life did people lead in the cities of the Middle Ages ?

ACTIVITY

Write an essay that explores what the everyday life of people might have been like in a city in the past.

REVIEW POINT

Only a minority of people lived in cities in the Middle Ages. Their way of life was different to that of people living in the countryside.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

In what ways have cities changed from what they were in the past? Which changes have led to a better way of life for people, and which ones have made people's lives worse?

DISCUSSING ISSUES

In many countries around the world, the population of people living in cities is growing. Discuss how modern cities with large populations can be adapted to give people a better standard of living.

THINKING FURTHER

Think of some of the problems that people living fifty years from now will experience, both in cities and the countryside. What can we do now to avoid these problems developing in the future?

3.4    Places of danger

Cities in the Middle Ages can be fortresses of safety, protecting their inhabitants from invaders. However, cities can also become dangerous places in these times. They may become targets for conquering armies. They may be destroyed by fires or suffer from famine or plague. Cities built near large rivers may also be damaged by flooding. For the people of the tenth century, it can be difficult living in cities or the countryside.

Plague

Cities can become overcrowded, leading to many problems. One of the biggest dangers in the Middle Ages is the fear of plague. Many cities in these times do not have proper sewage systems or ways to remove waste. People also keep chickens, sheep, goats, pigs and other animals in their courtyards.

Dangerous diseases carried by rats and other animals can spread rapidly from one person to another. Thousands of people may die when there is a plague. The people of this time have not as yet discovered how to control infectious diseases.

Targets for invaders

Cities which are seats of power can easily become a targets for invaders. If these invaders are strong enough they can lay siege to the city, cut it off from vital sources of food water. After several months, the people in the city may find that they are running out of their store of precious water and food. The rulers may be forced to surrender, followed by the invaders looting and destroying the city.

Fire

Another fear is that of fire. In some of the Mediterranean lands, the houses are built of stone while in other parts, they are cc4nsrructed from wood. In the Middle Ages, most houses are also built close to one another. The people cook their meals on open stoves using coal or wood. At night, their houses are lit by candles or oil lamps.

Wooden buildings can easily catch fire, spreading rapidly to other buildings. Large parts of a city may be destroyed when the fire cannot be quickly put out.

Famine

Cities cannot survive on their own without the people who live in the countryside, Much of the food that comes from the surrounding farms. When the crops fail due to pests, floods or drought, people living in the cities may face famine. In these times, the food becomes very expensive, and the poor are the first to suffer.

A few rulers are wise and order some of the grain to be saved in store-houses every year when there is plenty of food. During times of famine, stored grain can become very precious. However, when a drought lasts for several years, even the stored grain may run out.

Crime

In small villages, the people live close together and everyone knows their neighbours. The villagers may look after one another in difficult times. In large cities people are strangers to one another. Some people may have no one to care for them when they are in difficulties. They may turn to crime to make their ends meet.

When rulers cannot keep law and order in their cities, crime and violence may increase. People may find themselves caught up as victims of thieves and robbers.

Riots

When the people are led by a ruler whom they do not respect, cities can become hives of plotting and - scheming. Dissatisfied groups may plot to overthrow the ruler, leading to riots and rebellions.

During these times, innocent people may become victims as the ruler tries to restore peace in the city. Cordova has often faced riots in. the past in which many people have been killed and their properties destroyed.

In the Middle Ages, cities can become both fortresses of peace or terrible places of suffering. Cordoba has been both of these at different times and for different groups of people. Like other cities, it has seen happy and troubled times.

KEY QUESTIONS

What kind of dangers did people face in medieval cities?

WORDS TO LOOK UP

• Medieval

ACTIVITY

Continue the essay from the activity on the previous page. Imagine that the inhabitants of the city suffer a disaster; How are their lives affected?

REVIEW POINT

Cites in The past faced many dangers, from both natural and human causes A major disaster could lead to great upheaval in the lives of the inhabitants

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Find out more about great cities that suffered from invasions and other disasters in the Middle Ages. For example, read about the siege of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, or the great fire of London in 1666.

DISCUSSING ISSUES

Cities are more dangerous today than they were in the Middle Ages. To what extent do you agree with this statement?

THINKING FURTHER

What are some of the ways in which modern cities can be made into safer places?

Review of Unit 3

Review questions

1.    The jewel of al-Andalus

    What kind of city was Cordova during the time of Abd al-Rahman Ill?

     What were some of the main features of Cordon that visitors in the tenth century would have noticed?

    Why do you think Cordova was chosen as the capital of al-Andalus?

     Why did people choose to live in Cordon as its importance grew in the region?

2.    Cities-old and new

    What other cities in the Mediterranean region were important in this period, and why were they important?

     To what extent was the importance of cities based on how old they were in the Middle Ages?

     If you were living in medieval times, which city would you choose to live in, and why?

     What kinds of links arose between the cities in the Mediterranean region?

3.    Fortresses of safety

    Where did the majority of the people live in 'the Middle Age? Why was this the case?

    What were some of the advantages of living in the cities in this period?

     What were some of the reasons for people of different religions, cultures -and backgrounds to live together in cities?

     In what ways did the city and the countryside connect with one another?

4.    Places of danger

    What were some of the main dangers that cities in the Middle Ages faced? Why was it difficult for people in those times to defend themselves against disasters such as invasions, plagues and famine?

     What was the immediate impact of these calamities on the lives of the inhabitants?

• What kinds of changes might have occurred in the life of the people over a longer period?